Upper Mustang, a hidden kingdom in the Himalayan region of Nepal, has long enchanted travelers with its stark beauty, Tibetan-Buddhism culture, and mystical landscapes. But over the past decades, this Walled Kingdom has become an unsettling case study in the real-time impacts of climate change. This article aims to reflect the effect of climate change in the Upper Mustang region through the lens of culture, environment, and landscapes.
Climate change has resulted in the relocation and migration of communities in the Upper Mustang of Nepal. Many communities are abandoning their native villages. The Himalayan community has transitioned into Ghost villages. Dheye is one such example. Located at an elevation of 3,930 m, it is one of the first victims of climate change in Upper Mustang. On a broad term, a climate refugee.
Dheye is an important part of the Upper Mustang trek in Nepal. Once a welcoming village with cheerful people, it now serves as a ghost village with abandoned mud houses. According to the case study of kamforsud.org, of 24 households, 10 households have already relocated to Thangcung. Few have even migrated to India and Kathmandu for a better life. The remaining are in the process of migration and relocation.
“Our water resources are drying up quickly. Drinking water is scarce. Springs are drying up. We lack irrigation for farming. Our livelihood is dependent on agriculture and livestock. We have no choice other than to leave our native village and settle in another location.”, says Tsering Dhake Gurung, inhabitant of Dheye Village.
There are many ancient villages like Dhaye in the Upper Mustang in the process of relocation and migration. Even the most popular Lo Manthang, a hidden kingdom, is no exception. Global warming has been a serious threat over the past 30 years.
Greenhouse gas emissions from industries and human activities are contributing to the melting of snow and glaciers in the mountains. The rise in global temperature is causing the melting of snow and glaciers. According to the Snow Update Report published by the International Center for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), the snow persistence from 2023 to 2024 has sharply dropped to 23.6% in the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region.
Snow persistence is the amount of time snow remains on the ground. This has a direct impact on the water resources, glaciers, landscapes, and agriculture. Inhabitants of Upper Mustang and other mountainous regions are no exception.
Photo: Contrasting images of climate change at Upper Mustang. Soil erosion on the red cliff and drought on the land.
Glacier Lake Outburst Floods (GLOF) are the result of rising temperatures and the melting of snow persistence. A glacier flood swept away the whole Sherpa village of Thame on the 17th of August, 2024. There are more than a hundred such glaciers on the brink of collapsing due to rising global temperatures.
It is not only snow melting but also a decline in snow in the mountains and valleys. The same report from ICIMOD shows the constant decline in snowfall over the past 13 years. This is a harrowing situation for the people of Upper Mustang, as snow is one of the major sources of water and irrigation at the Hidden Kingdom of Nepal.
Upper Mustang lies in the rain-shadow area, which means the Mustang region of Nepal does not receive much rainfall. However, over the past few decades, Upper Mustang has faced irregularity in rainfall. The intensity has increased. According to the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology, the highest recorded rainfall was 200mm before 2009.
Photo: Rainfall at Upper Mustang and Jomsom from 2009 to 2023
However, the rainfall pattern in the region has drastically changed. In the year 2023, Upper Mustang received 331mm of rainfall, which is a 65.5% growth from 2009 to 2023. The rainfall curve does not seem to be declining anymore in the future. Similarly, Jomsom has recorded 300mm of rainfall in 2010 and 665mm of rainfall in 2023. This is a 121% increase in rainfall. This is concerning. Why?
The culture, lifestyle, and architecture are shaped by the climate and landscapes of any area. The Mustang region is windy and sandy, secluded between the northern hills and mountains. The houses, gompas, chorten, and other major architecture are built from local materials such as mud and wood, which are compatible with the existing landscapes. But due to the high intensity of rainfall in the rain shadow area, mud houses are collapsing.
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Photo: Chhoser caves are prone to damage due to over rainfall.
Another concerning matter is the collapse of ancient caves. 3,000 years ancient Caves built on the Red Cliff of Mustang are collapsing due to rain. Chungsi Cave, Jhong Cave, Konchok Ling Cave, Ritseling Cave, and the caves near the Lo Manthang area are under threat. Intense rain has loosened the mud on the cliff. These are no ordinary caves. They depict the long history of human civilization and the cultures of the Mustangi people.
Climate change is directly posing a threat to culture, traditions, and age-old rituals. Damage by rain includes cracks and the collapse of ancient caves. Hundreds of such caves in Mustang will collapse in a few decades, if the implication of climate change is not checked.
Implications of climate change are seen in the ancient cultures, festivals, and heritage of Upper Mustang as well. These cultures, shaped by Tibetan Buddhism, are visible in the lifestyle and architecture of the Mustang region.
Climate change is visible in vibrant festivals like Tiji, Loshar, and Yartung in Mustang. These festivals have been celebrated with great joy and feasts for centuries. Families contribute grains to prepare local cuisines, and Chang (local beer) for the festivals. But due to the effect of global warming, there has been a low cut or reduction in crop production. Therefore, people are not able to contribute much.
Livestock are decreasing in numbers. Food production is declining due to unprecedented rainfall. Under such conditions, it is difficult to practise or continue the festivals. The next generation will find it hard to continue such festivals in the future.
“Festivals like Loshar mean a lot to me, my family, and community. They unite families and the community. 10..20 years back, people used to contribute grains or food wholeheartedly. Now people cannot offer. But it's not their fault either. Food production is low. Cattle are decreasing. We are having a difficult time continuing our traditions.” Tsering Dhake Gurung shares with a gloomy face.
The adverse effects of climate change are seen on the wildlife and vegetation of the Upper Mustang area. There has been a dramatic shift in the flora and fauna. Rare vegetation such as Jatamanshi (Nardostachys grandiflora), Louth Salla (Taxus wallichiana), Pakhanbed (Bergenia ciliata), and many such species are in vulnerable situations. Few have even disappeared from the landscapes.
Photo: Horses grazing on the pasture land of Upper Mustang.
Due to climate change, wildlife in the Upper Mustang is losing its habitat. There is a disruption of the entire ecosystem in the region. Animal species such as the Snow leopard, Tibetan wolf, and Tibetan gazelle are under threat. Similarly, bird species such as the Himalayan griffon vulture, Lammergeier, and Golden eagle are also in danger. Changes in plant species affect herbivorous animals like Himalayan blue sheep (Jharal), which in turn impact predators like snow leopards and Tibetan wolves.
Nepal needs to be more vocal about the impact of climate change on the landscapes, mountains, glaciers, water resources, and heritage of the Upper Mustang. Advocating the effects of global warming on the international stage creates awareness. It's not that efforts are not made, but lack strategic plans and consistency.
Petrol and diesel vehicles get easy access in the Upper Mustang. Even in the Lo Manthang, which requires Restricted Area Permits (RAP) to enter. Carbon emissions from vehicles contribute to melting snow, irregular rainfall, and more. That is where Electric Vehicle (EV) comes into play. EVs can play a crucial role in preventing the effects of climate change.
People of Mustang have been practising livestock like Chyangra (Himalayan Goat) in the region. But due to migration, the long-standing tradition is collapsing. The younger generation is not interested. Encouraging youths with proper training and incentives can revamp the culture. It encourages youth entrepreneurship and the conservation of culture and traditions.
Photo: Herds of Himalayan Goat (Chyangra) and Yak.
Water has been a major cause of migration for the people of the Mustang region. Exploring alternatives for water resources could prevent migration. Alternatives such as constructing artificial glaciers, Ice Stupa, and building an ice reservoir could help the people with water issues.
The landscape ecosystem of Upper Mustang is fragile. Before initiating any infrastructure development, an environmental assessment is crucial. Environmental assessment measures the damage of development projects on the life and landscape of Upper Mustang.
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